Sapphire Mining in Madagascar

Madagascar’s gemstones are as diverse and beautiful as its flora and fauna. Its sapphires likely formed 550-650 million years ago while the island was still part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. Approximately 150 million years ago, Madagascar separated from the African continent. The island remained connected to the Indian tectonic plate until 80 million years ago when India moved northward to ultimately collide with the Eurasian plate, creating the Himalayas and that region’s younger sapphires 40-50 million years ago. 

The presence of gemstones on the island was discovered approximately 200 years ago, and has since become recognized as a major source of sapphire, ruby, aquamarine, morganite, emerald, tourmaline, garnet, sphene and many other gems. In 1998, the Southern town of Ilakaka gained international attention as the source of one of the largest alluvial deposits of sapphires ever discovered. For the next decade, Madagascar overshadowed Sri Lanka and Thailand as the highest producer of sapphires. Artisanal production today has been significantly diminished due to the consequences of the pandemic, and large scale mining operations have been hindered by dramatic fuel cost increases.

Edward at artisanal miner’s hut in Banc Suisse, Ilakaka, Madagascar in 2003

Edward with his cousin, Raphael Gübelin, in Ilakaka, Madagascar in 2022

10ct Blue Sapphire from Madagascar

On a recent trip to Madagascar, I was able to revisit some of the mines in the Ilakaka mining area that I had been to on previous trips. Not much has changed in the last 20 years aside from the presence of a few large-scale mining ventures. Artisanal mining by hand is still the primary method for recovering gem material at depths down to approximately 50 meters. In the above two images, miners are removing overburden to expose the gem-bearing layer known in Malagasy as Lalam-Bato, or “the way of stones”.

Artisanal miners with their windlasses set ready to retrieve buckets of gem bearing gravel through a narrow 2-foot wide shaft 

Though not as common, large-scale mining equipment such as the excavators and washing plant in the photos above are becoming increasingly more necessary to recover the ever more elusive gem gravel.

In our 5 days in and around Ilakaka, the production we saw consisted of mostly smaller blue and pastel colors of sapphire, along with chrysoberyl and spinel. The rough depicted above would yield finished gems ranging from 0.50ct-3.00ct

4ct Pink Sapphire from Madagascar

The focus of my trip to Madagascar was to work with Gübelin Jewelry on its transparent sourcing endeavors, and to better understand the current mining conditions in Madagascar. We visited mines in and around Ilakaka, and in the north near Antetezambato.

The purpose of the trip was also to strengthen their existing partnerships and seek out new sources that adhere to Provenance Proof initiatives, which enables the step-by-step documentation of the supply chain in a secure blockchain. The chronology of production and custody of ownership are paramount to Gübelin’s goals to provide its customers full transparency of the journey of the gems featured in their jewelry.

For more information about Provenance Proof, click here to visit their website.

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P.S. This giant tortoise is almost 200 yrs old!

“Island of Gems”

Exploring the Mines of Sri Lanka

“Ceylon has all the fine cinnamon of the Indies and the best sapphires.”

– Vasco de Gama

Mentions of gemstones are found throughout history, and Sri Lanka (also referred to historically as Ceylon, Sidhaleepa, Serendib and Taprobane) is central in these tales. The nation’s gem trade dates back to the 6th century B.C., if not further. King Solomon is said to have offered precious stones from Ceylon in his quest to win the heart of the Queen of Sheba. Local royalty and religious leaders wore jewelry encrusted with fine gems long before the trade expanded beyond the island itself, and Mukkuwars, a people devoted to mining gems in Sri Lanka, felt gems should be carried with them into the afterlife. Arab, Indian, Dutch, and Portuguese spice traders also expanded the reach of gems from this precious isle.

Sri Lanka is home to many varieties of gemstones, including alexandrite, chrysoberyl, garnet, moonstone, spinel, topaz, tourmaline and zircon, but perhaps the most sought after are the corundum gems, particularly padparadscha and Ceylon blue sapphires.

The name padparadscha is derived from the Sanskrit “padma raga”, which means lotus color. Though lotus flowers come in many hues, the rare and desirable pinkish-orange to orangy-pink color defines this gem variety. The range of acceptable padparadscha color is also associated with similar hues seen at sunrise and sunset.

While Sri Lanka is typically known for its brighter cornflower blue sapphires, it also produces more intense blues that are often confused with those from Burma, and even Kashmir. Sri Lanka is also the most prolific producer of cat’s eye chrysoberyl and star sapphires in all hues. 

Gem mining has been an integral part of the Sri Lankan culture and economy for millennia, and there are many governmental procedures in place to protect both the residents and the land itself. The National Gem and Jewelry Authority (NGJA) oversees sustainability practices with the goal of maintaining a clean environment and stimulating the local economy. Once gemstone material is found and a mining license obtained, the land owner, financier, and mine workers are each entitled to a share of the profits.

Sri Lanka’s Central Highland Complex and Eastern Vijayan Complex are the most important areas for gem production. Central Highland sapphires come from Ratnapura, Balangoda, Rakwana, Matale and Elahera. Other deposits in the Southern portion of the Eastern Complex are located at Kataragama and Okampitiya.

In Sri Lanka, gems are typically found in an alluvial layer of gem-bearing gravel referred to as “Illam”. However, primary as well as secondary eluvial deposits consisting of euhedral and subhedral crystals may also be found. Gem-bearing material is sorted by hand washing the illam in circular thatch baskets or using a sluice and jig gravity separation system. Both these methods are employed to separate pebbles and dirt from the denser gem rough that sinks to the bottom of the basket or jig.

The majority of mines in Sri Lanka are pits reinforced by wood scaffolding and leaves, and manned by a small crew. Mechanized mining is only permitted when the gem deposits are too deep or sparse for pit mining, or when the concentration of gem material is so high that illegal mining might occur. There are more than 8,000 licensed mines across Sri Lanka, employing over 75,000 miners (pers. comm. Dr. Gamini Zoysa).Unlike many other mining locales, there are very few abandoned mines in Sri Lanka. Once a mine is no longer active, the NGJA requires that all pits and mine shafts be filled to prevent damage to the landscape, mosquito breeding, and other hazards caused by the unattended pits.

For generations, gems found in Sri Lanka have been cut and polished before being exported. Traditional methods of faceting that were less efficient and precise are gradually being replaced by new technology, preserving Sri Lanka’s respected reputation as a source of fine gemstones. More recently, Sri Lanka has allowed the importation of gem rough from other source countries, adding significantly to the growth of their cutting and polishing industry. They have also mastered the art of heat treatment to improve color and clarity, thereby adding additional value to gems that would have otherwise been less saleable.

Sri Lanka is an important supplier of spices as well as gemstones, cinnamon being top among them. Due to their typically brownish-orange color, hessonite garnets are affectionately referred to as Cinnamon Stones. Recently, more red colored hessonites have been discovered at Kamburupitiya in the southern district of Matara.

“I want you to understand that the Island of Ceylon is for its size, the finest island in the world, and from its streams comes rubies, sapphires, topazes, amethyst and garnet.”

– Marco Polo

Celebrating October’s Birthstones

Opal and Tourmaline give jewelers the opportunity to play with color in countless and unique ways. What makes them both truly remarkable is that Tourmaline and Opal are found in almost every color of our visible spectrum, from colorless to yellow, orange, pink, red, green, teal, blue, purple, violet, brown, gray, black and many more vivid and phenomenal colors

Black opal in Lightning Ridge, Australia, formed millions of years ago after a shallow inland sea evaporated, leaving behind a compact structure of silica-rich spheres in small voids and crevices, and often replacing other organic substances that, over time, hardened into opals. Opal’s play-of-color is a result of light being split into the various spectral colors as it is forced to reflect and refract within the spaces between the spheres. Red colors are the result of smaller and more compact spheres, while the blue end is a result of larger silica spheres

Opal has been discovered in martian meteorites and mineral deposits which appear to be opal have been found on the red planet by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Because the formation of opal is so closely tied to water, these and other discoveries suggest that frozen water could be found on Mars

The origin of the word Opal is uncertain, but it likely comes from either the Sanskrit word Upala, meaning “valuable stone”, the Greek word Opallios, meaning “to see a change of color” or the Roman word Opalus, meaning “precious stone”

Although it was introduced to Europeans in the 1700’s, Tourmaline was mistaken for other stones for centuries before finally being recognized as a separate gem. In ancient Egyptian lore, tourmaline voyaged from the center of the Earth towards the sun, absorbing the colors of the rainbow along which it traveled

Tourmaline is known as the Muse’s stone, and is said to assist in the creative flow of artists across many mediums

Tourmaline contains pyro-electric properties. The Dutch discovered tourmaline’s ability to attract dust and ash when heated (causing polarization). The long, slender crystals were used to clean their meerschaum pipes by drawing out the ashes

Today this property, creating strong polarity, is used in hair styling tools

Tourmalines also have a piezoelectric effect that was first applied in underwater sonar systems and ultrasound technology
during the second world war

The Cruzeiro Mine has been commercially operational since the 1940’s when the US mined mica there during WWII for electronic components. Since the 1950’s, it has produced fine quality rubellite, indicolite, bi-color and emerald green tourmalines 

This 61ct Cuprian “Paraiba-type” Tourmaline is one of the largest to have ever been cut. It’s country of origin is known by those who mined, cut, and brokered its first transaction to an international gem merchant. However, determining its geographic origin can be difficult if that information doesn’t pass on to the next gem merchant, new cutter, jewelry designer, jewelry manufacturer, or retailer.

This particular gem has two laboratory reports with differing opinions about its country-of-origin; one stating that it is from Mozambique and the other stating that it is from Nigeria and a “Classic” example of that locality

Gemological Laboratories that issue country-of-origin reports are at a disadvantage because they do not have first-hand reliable knowledge of where the original gem crystal or rough was found. They are, however, with the aid of extremely well-trained gemologists coupled with specialized and advanced testing equipment, able to provide a relatively accurate opinion of where or at least within what type of geological formation a particular gem may have originated. Adding to the complexity of this challenge is that many gems, as well as diamonds, are often found in secondary eluvial deposits, meaning that they were deposited close to where they formed but in heavily altered host rock or in alluvial deposits where they have been transported by ancient rivers and streams to placers up to hundreds of miles away from where they originally formed. In the case of diamonds, all are formed within the Earth’s upper mantle at a depth of 100km or more below the surface of the earth and transported by kimberlitic magmatic intrusives through the Earth’s crust where we can discover them for our adornment and technological use

Tourmaline ranges dramatically in demand and value, and the most desired are Paraiba tourmalines from Batalha, Rio Grande do Norte and Minas Gerais in Brazil.  A relative newcomer in the gemstone world, these brilliant blue and green elbaite tourmalines were discovered in the late 1980’s.  Because of their scarcity and electric colors, caused by trace amounts of copper and manganese, they are now one of the most coveted gemstones in the world. Digital Ledgers like blockchain would provide a much more accurate and reliable method of passing vital information about a particular gem downstream, which would also make it easier for Gemological laboratories to provide more confident and consistent origin determinations 

Celebrating September’s Birthstone

Sapphire has held an unwavering place at the top of gemstone hierarchy since ancient times. Considered a “royal gem”, sapphire was historically reserved for royalty and high priests, who wore them to protect themselves against harm and envy or attract favor. According to Persian legend, the Earth rested atop a great sapphire, the reflection of which gave the sky its  blue color

The word sapphire was derived from the latin “saphirus” and the greek “sapheiros”, both meaning blue, and usually conjures an image of a blue gemstone. However, in its pure form, corundum is colorless, and trace elements of iron, titanium and chromium produce colors across the color spectrum

The finest sapphires from Burma, Sri Lanka and Madagascar formed through metamorphic processes in altered shales, gneisses and limestones, while those from Kashmir formed in pegmatites. Kashmir sapphires are praised for their velvety blue color which is caused by minute inclusions that disperse light throughout the stone

Most sapphires are found in secondary gem-bearing river gravels, known in Sri Lanka as “illam” and in Burma as “byon”. Above is a typical wicker basket used to sift these gravels, allowing for the denser gem material to remain in the basket

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Sapphire forms in hexagonal dipyramidal crystals, as seen above

Sapphire and ruby are varieties of corundum, which is derived from the Sanskrit word kurivinda, and the Tamil-Dravidian kurundum, meaning ruby. The Sanskrit word for sapphire is shanipriya, meaning “dear to Saturn”. Many believe that wearing sapphires brings healing and positive energy

Sapphires exhibit two distinct colors, known as pleochroism, thereby requiring highly-skilled cutters to blend the colors and minimize color-zoning. Gem padparadscha sapphires are skillfully faceted to blend the pink and orange hues associated with the lotus flower, a sunrise or sunset

Famous blue sapphire engagement rings have sparked trends in similar styles for years. Notable examples are Napoleon Bonaparte’s Toi et Moi diamond and sapphirering upon his engagement to Josephine, Lady Diana Spencer’s (and later Kate Middleton’s) 12ct sapphire ring, and Carole Lombard’s 150ct star sapphire ring from William Powell in 1931 

Star sapphires were very popular in the 1920’s and 1930’s among Hollywood starlets. Bombay Sapphire gin was actually named for the “Star of Bombay”, a 60ct star sapphire belonging to Mary Pickford before she donated it to the Smithsonian Institute upon her death. Other leading ladies known for their star sapphires include Joan Crawford, Carole Lombard, Jean Harlow and Myrna Loy

Celebrating August’s Birthstones

August’s birthstones, spinel and peridot, have both been famously misidentified throughout history. Many well-known and coveted rubies, like the Black Prince’s Ruby and the Timur Ruby, are now known to be spinel. It is likely that, without spinel, rubies would not have reached the popularity or prestige that they enjoy today. In the same way, many of the “emeralds” in Cleopatra’s collection, as well as “emeralds” decorating the shrine of the Three Kings in the Cologne Cathedral in Germany, are, in fact, peridot

Peridot symbolizes strength, and was worn by the Egyptians to ward off evil. In ancient times, peridot was known as chrysolite, the “gem of the sun”, and in more recent years has been referred to as the “evening emerald” because it’s electric green color remains strong in dim lighting

Throughout history, the island of Topázios, now Zabargad, has been a primary source of peridot. The name topaz was originally applied to all yellow to greenish-yellow gems. Topaz and peridot are both members of the orthorhombic crystal system, adding to the early confusion. The name peridot likely stems from the Arabic word “faridat”, meaning gem

Along with diamond, peridot is one of only two gems that can form in the Earth’s mantle rather than the crust. It is often transported
to the surface within volcanic basalts

Peridot is the magnesium-rich gemstone variety of the olivine group, and its color can be influenced by trace amounts of iron. It has been found on all continents, including Antarctica (in volcanic basalts, from Ross Island), and it is also occasionally found in meteorites (pallasite), although rarely gem-quality. The primary sources for gem-quality peridot are Burma, Pakistan, United States and China 

Spinel forms in octahedrons, and is a member of the cubic crystal system. The Latin word “spina”, meaning thorn, is likely to be the origin of the name spinel, referring to the shape of the crystals. In Burma, transparent and well-formed spinel octahedrons are referred to as Nat Thwe, meaning “angel cut”, because their nearly perfect shape and glassy surface hints that celestial beings must have played a part in their formation  

Spinel has been mistaken for corundum throughout history because it is found in similar colors and many of the same localities. Its lore is connected to that of ruby and other red gems, which symbolize passion, strength, nobility, loyalty and spiritual wisdom. In Marco Polo’s 13th century travel log, known as The Travels of Marco Polo, Marvels of the World, he refers to “Balas Rubies”, coming from the region of Badakhshan along the Silk Road, connecting China with the west. Today, we know that these ruby-red gems were actually spinels

Color-change spinel is more rare than color-change sapphire, making it a highly sought-after gem amongst collectors and connoisseurs

Celebrating July’s Birthstone

Ruby has long been associated with the Sanskrit word Ratnarāj, meaning “king of gems”, and has been admired and sought after by royalty, celebrities and collectors throughout history

When Queen Elizabeth II was married in 1947, she was gifted a ruby necklace by the people of Burma. In 1973, Garrard & Co. set 96 fine rubies from the necklace into an iconic tiara. She named this diadem the Burmese Ruby Tiara to honor the generosity of the people of Burma (now Myanmar)

In the 1920’s and 30’s, star rubies and sapphires were very popular amongst the Hollywood elite. The “Star of Burma”, an 83ct cabochon cut star ruby, had a starring role in three 1937 films: Hollywood Hotel, Manhattan Merry-Go-Round and Vogues of 1938, where it was set in a deco bracelet by Trabert & Hoeffer (Mauboussin). These appearances played their part in making it as famous as the actresses it adorned
 Elizabeth Taylor’s vast jewelry collection is known throughout the world, and ruby was one of her favorite gemstones. While on vacation in the Côte d’Azur in 1957, her husband Mike Todd gifted her with a breathtaking ruby and diamond necklace, earring and bracelet set from Cartier. Todd died tragically in a plane crash just one year later. In 1968, her then-husband Richard Burton gave her an 8.25ct ruby and diamond ring by Van Cleef & Arpels for Christmas. Her jewelry collection was sent to auction at Christie’s in 2011, where the 8.25ct ruby and diamond ring sold for $4.22 million, and the ruby and diamond necklace sold for $3.7 million

Notable Ruby Auction Results:

• 2012 – 32.08ct “Hope Ruby” sold for $6.74 million
• 2012 – 173.09ct total weight, JAR Ruby Flower Brooch sold for $4.5 million
• 2014 – 8.62ct “Graff Ruby” sold for $8.6 million
• 2015 – 25.59ct “Sunrise Ruby” sold for $30.3 million
• 2015 – 15.04ct “Crimson Flame Ruby” sold for $18.3 million
• 2015 – 48=120ct Etcetera Ruby & Diamond Necklace (rubies ranging from 1-7ct) sold for $13 million
• 2016 – 15.99ct “Jubilee Ruby” sold for $14.1 million
• 2016 – 10.05ct “Ratnaraj Ruby” sold for $10.2 million
• 2017 – 15.03ct Unnamed Ruby sold for $13 million
• 2019 – 11.20ct “Dupont Ruby” sold for $8.95 million

The mines in Mogok are still officially closed, so production continues to be minimal, and therefore, prices have remained strong. In contrast, production at the Monte Puez ruby deposit in Mozambique is still producing considerable supply, meeting much of the global demand. Smaller deposits in Vietnam, Tanzania, Madagascar and Afghanistan have had limited production, particularly in recent months, due to health concerns 

Like ruby, precious topaz gets its color from trace amounts of chromium (Cr+3). There are two theories as to how topaz derived its name. Some say it is named for the island of Topazios in the Red Sea, which historically produced peridot, while others believe it comes from the Sanskrit word tapaz or topas, meaning “fire”

Ancient Egyptians believed that topaz was colored by the golden glow of the sun god Ra.  Ancient Romans associated the stone with Jupiter, also god of the sun.  These myths were likely fueled by the gem’s array of fiery hues

The color most often associated with topaz is yellow, but it is actually found in orange, brown, red, blue, pink, violet, and colorless as well. Until geologists started identifying differences in mineral specimens about 200 years ago, all yellow and golden gemstones were labeled as topaz

Imperial topaz was named after nineteenth century Imperial Russia, and was so rare and beautiful that ownership of the gem was only granted to the royal family and those fortunate enough to receive it as a gift from the Czar

Topaz formed in hydrothermal veins and is found in heavily altered schist that has turned into lateritic clay.

The Capão do Lana Mine, just outside of the village of Rodrigo Silva in Minas Gerais, Brazil, once produced the largest amount of imperial topaz worldwide. Mineral deposits were first recorded by the Portuguese in this location in 1751, and in 1768, they were discovered to contain topaz. The Capão Mine recently stopped operating but the Vermelhão, Dom Bosco, Boa Vista and Bela Vista are still producing. Read more about Brazilian Topaz in this article by Edward